2026Mar, 27
The impacts of sea-level rise and other hazards on the coasts of the world are determined by coastal sea-level height and land elevation1. Correct integration of both aspects is fundamental for reliable sea-level rise and coastal hazard impact assessments2,3, but is often not carefully considered or properly performed. Here we show that more than 99% of the evaluated impact assessments handled sea-level and land elevation data inadequately, thereby misjudging sea level relative to coastal elevation. Based on our literature evaluation, 90% of the hazard assessments assume coastal sea levels based on geoid models, rather than using actual sea-level measurements. Our meta-analyses on global scale show that measured coastal sea level is higher than assumed in most hazard assessments (mean offsets [standard deviation] of 0.27 m [0.76 m] and 0.24 m [0.52 m] for two commonly-used geoids). Regionally, predominantly in the Global South, measured mean sea level can be more than 1 m above global geoids, with the largest differences in the Indo-Pacific. Compared with geoid-based assumptions of coastal sea level, the measured values suggest that with a hypothetical 1 m of relative sea-level rise, 31–37% more land and 48–68% more people (increasing estimates to 77–132 million) would fall below sea level. Our results highlight the need for re-evaluation of existing coastal impact assessments and improvement of research community standards, with possible implications for policymakers, climate finance and coastal adaptation. Sea-level rise (SLR) poses a high risk to vast coastal lowlands around the world, including low-elevated and populous river deltas and coastal /plains. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessment report 6 (AR6) (shared socioeconomic pathway (SSP)1-1.9 to SSP5-8.5)4, global mean sea level (MSL) is projected to rise between 0.28 m and 1.01 m by 2100 compared with that in 1995–2014. Including deep uncertainties in the polar ice-sheet dynamics, these projections could increase by several metres4. This rise is amplified by negative vertical land motion, that is, land subsidence, a natural but increasingly human-accelerated phenomenon in coastal lowlands5,6, which drives higher rates of relative sea-level rise (RSLR)7,8. Consequently, the impacts of RSLR and coastal (and compound) flooding are closely related to coastal elevation relative to sea level. Assessing coastal exposure and vulnerability consequently requires the use of elevation information, commonly provided by digital elevation models (DEMs). Constituting the fundamental base of any such impact and exposure assessment, the quality (mainly vertical accuracy and spatial resolution) of the DEMs is fundamental to the accuracy and reliability of the derivatives and widely addressed in scientific literature (see, for example, ref. 9). Although high-quality elevation information, for example, acquired through airborne lidar, is available in several regions of the Global North (see, for example, ref. 10), the best available elevation data for the vast majority of the coastal areas worldwide is satellite-based. The global availability of satellite-based elevation data enabled unprecedented.
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